root/django/branches/schema-evolution-ng/docs/db-api.txt

======================
Database API reference
======================

Once you've created your `data models`_, Django automatically gives you a
database-abstraction API that lets you create, retrieve, update and delete
objects. This document explains that API.

.. _`data models`: http://www.djangoproject.com/documentation/model_api/

Throughout this reference, we'll refer to the following models, which comprise
a weblog application::

    class Blog(models.Model):
        name = models.CharField(maxlength=100)
        tagline = models.TextField()

        def __str__(self):
            return self.name

    class Author(models.Model):
        name = models.CharField(maxlength=50)
        email = models.URLField()

        def __str__(self):
            return self.name

    class Entry(models.Model):
        blog = models.ForeignKey(Blog)
        headline = models.CharField(maxlength=255)
        body_text = models.TextField()
        pub_date = models.DateTimeField()
        authors = models.ManyToManyField(Author)

        def __str__(self):
            return self.headline

Creating objects
================

To represent database-table data in Python objects, Django uses an intuitive
system: A model class represents a database table, and an instance of that
class represents a particular record in the database table.

To create an object, instantiate it using keyword arguments to the model class,
then call ``save()`` to save it to the database.

You import the model class from wherever it lives on the Python path, as you
may expect. (We point this out here because previous Django versions required
funky model importing.)

Assuming models live in a file ``mysite/blog/models.py``, here's an example::

    from mysite.blog.models import Blog
    b = Blog(name='Beatles Blog', tagline='All the latest Beatles news.')
    b.save()

This performs an ``INSERT`` SQL statement behind the scenes. Django doesn't hit
the database until you explicitly call ``save()``.

The ``save()`` method has no return value.

To create an object and save it all in one step see the `create`__ method.

__ `create(**kwargs)`_

Auto-incrementing primary keys
------------------------------

If a model has an ``AutoField`` -- an auto-incrementing primary key -- then
that auto-incremented value will be calculated and saved as an attribute on
your object the first time you call ``save()``.

Example::

    b2 = Blog(name='Cheddar Talk', tagline='Thoughts on cheese.')
    b2.id     # Returns None, because b doesn't have an ID yet.
    b2.save()
    b2.id     # Returns the ID of your new object.

There's no way to tell what the value of an ID will be before you call
``save()``, because that value is calculated by your database, not by Django.

(For convenience, each model has an ``AutoField`` named ``id`` by default
unless you explicitly specify ``primary_key=True`` on a field. See the
`AutoField documentation`_.)

.. _AutoField documentation: http://www.djangoproject.com/documentation/model_api/#autofield

Explicitly specifying auto-primary-key values
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

If a model has an ``AutoField`` but you want to define a new object's ID
explicitly when saving, just define it explicitly before saving, rather than
relying on the auto-assignment of the ID.

Example::

    b3 = Blog(id=3, name='Cheddar Talk', tagline='Thoughts on cheese.')
    b3.id     # Returns 3.
    b3.save()
    b3.id     # Returns 3.

If you assign auto-primary-key values manually, make sure not to use an
already-existing primary-key value! If you create a new object with an explicit
primary-key value that already exists in the database, Django will assume
you're changing the existing record rather than creating a new one.

Given the above ``'Cheddar Talk'`` blog example, this example would override
the previous record in the database::

    b4 = Blog(id=3, name='Not Cheddar', tagline='Anything but cheese.')
    b4.save()  # Overrides the previous blog with ID=3!

See _`How Django knows to UPDATE vs. INSERT`, below, for the reason this
happens.

Explicitly specifying auto-primary-key values is mostly useful for bulk-saving
objects, when you're confident you won't have primary-key collision.

Saving changes to objects
=========================

To save changes to an object that's already in the database, use ``save()``.

Given a ``Blog`` instance ``b5`` that has already been saved to the database,
this example changes its name and updates its record in the database::

    b5.name = 'New name'
    b5.save()

This performs an ``UPDATE`` SQL statement behind the scenes. Django doesn't hit
the database until you explicitly call ``save()``.

The ``save()`` method has no return value.

How Django knows to UPDATE vs. INSERT
-------------------------------------

You may have noticed Django database objects use the same ``save()`` method
for creating and changing objects. Django abstracts the need to use ``INSERT``
or ``UPDATE`` SQL statements. Specifically, when you call ``save()``, Django
follows this algorithm:

    * If the object's primary key attribute is set to a value that evaluates to
      ``True`` (i.e., a value other than ``None`` or the empty string), Django 
      executes a ``SELECT`` query to determine whether a record with the given 
      primary key already exists.
    * If the record with the given primary key does already exist, Django
      executes an ``UPDATE`` query.
    * If the object's primary key attribute is *not* set, or if it's set but a
      record doesn't exist, Django executes an ``INSERT``.

The one gotcha here is that you should be careful not to specify a primary-key
value explicitly when saving new objects, if you cannot guarantee the
primary-key value is unused. For more on this nuance, see
"Explicitly specifying auto-primary-key values" above.

Retrieving objects
==================

To retrieve objects from your database, you construct a ``QuerySet`` via a
``Manager`` on your model class.

A ``QuerySet`` represents a collection of objects from your database. It can
have zero, one or many *filters* -- criteria that narrow down the collection
based on given parameters. In SQL terms, a ``QuerySet`` equates to a ``SELECT``
statement, and a filter is a limiting clause such as ``WHERE`` or ``LIMIT``.

You get a ``QuerySet`` by using your model's ``Manager``. Each model has at
least one ``Manager``, and it's called ``objects`` by default. Access it
directly via the model class, like so::

    Blog.objects  # <django.db.models.manager.Manager object at ...>
    b = Blog(name='Foo', tagline='Bar')
    b.objects     # AttributeError: "Manager isn't accessible via Blog instances."

(``Managers`` are accessible only via model classes, rather than from model
instances, to enforce a separation between "table-level" operations and
"record-level" operations.)

The ``Manager`` is the main source of ``QuerySets`` for a model. It acts as a
"root" ``QuerySet`` that describes all objects in the model's database table.
For example, ``Blog.objects`` is the initial ``QuerySet`` that contains all
``Blog`` objects in the database.

Retrieving all objects
----------------------

The simplest way to retrieve objects from a table is to get all of them.
To do this, use the ``all()`` method on a ``Manager``.

Example::

    all_entries = Entry.objects.all()

The ``all()`` method returns a ``QuerySet`` of all the objects in the database.

(If ``Entry.objects`` is a ``QuerySet``, why can't we just do ``Entry.objects``?
That's because ``Entry.objects``, the root ``QuerySet``, is a special case
that cannot be evaluated. The ``all()`` method returns a ``QuerySet`` that
*can* be evaluated.)

Filtering objects
-----------------

The root ``QuerySet`` provided by the ``Manager`` describes all objects in the
database table. Usually, though, you'll need to select only a subset of the
complete set of objects.

To create such a subset, you refine the initial ``QuerySet``, adding filter
conditions. The two most common ways to refine a ``QuerySet`` are:

``filter(**kwargs)``
    Returns a new ``QuerySet`` containing objects that match the given lookup
    parameters.

``exclude(**kwargs)``
    Returns a new ``QuerySet`` containing objects that do *not* match the given
    lookup parameters.

The lookup parameters (``**kwargs`` in the above function definitions) should
be in the format described in `Field lookups`_ below.

For example, to get a ``QuerySet`` of blog entries from the year 2006, use
``filter()`` like so::

    Entry.objects.filter(pub_date__year=2006)

(Note we don't have to add an ``all()`` -- ``Entry.objects.all().filter(...)``.
That would still work, but you only need ``all()`` when you want all objects
from the root ``QuerySet``.)

Chaining filters
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

The result of refining a ``QuerySet`` is itself a ``QuerySet``, so it's
possible to chain refinements together. For example::

    Entry.objects.filter(
        headline__startswith='What').exclude(
            pub_date__gte=datetime.now()).filter(
                pub_date__gte=datetime(2005, 1, 1))

...takes the initial ``QuerySet`` of all entries in the database, adds a
filter, then an exclusion, then another filter. The final result is a
``QuerySet`` containing all entries with a headline that starts with "What",
that were published between January 1, 2005, and the current day.

Filtered QuerySets are unique
-----------------------------

Each time you refine a ``QuerySet``, you get a brand-new ``QuerySet`` that is
in no way bound to the previous ``QuerySet``. Each refinement creates a
separate and distinct ``QuerySet`` that can be stored, used and reused.

Example::

    q1 = Entry.objects.filter(headline__startswith="What")
    q2 = q1.exclude(pub_date__gte=datetime.now())
    q3 = q1.filter(pub_date__gte=datetime.now())

These three ``QuerySets`` are separate. The first is a base ``QuerySet``
containing all entries that contain a headline starting with "What". The second
is a subset of the first, with an additional criteria that excludes records
whose ``pub_date`` is greater than now. The third is a subset of the first,
with an additional criteria that selects only the records whose ``pub_date`` is
greater than now. The initial ``QuerySet`` (``q1``) is unaffected by the
refinement process.

QuerySets are lazy
------------------

``QuerySets`` are lazy -- the act of creating a ``QuerySet`` doesn't involve
any database activity. You can stack filters together all day long, and Django
won't actually run the query until the ``QuerySet`` is *evaluated*.

When QuerySets are evaluated
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

You can evaluate a ``QuerySet`` in the following ways:

    * **Iteration.** A ``QuerySet`` is iterable, and it executes its database
      query the first time you iterate over it. For example, this will print
      the headline of all entries in the database::

          for e in Entry.objects.all():
              print e.headline

    * **Slicing.** As explained in `Limiting QuerySets`_ below, a ``QuerySet``
      can be sliced, using Python's array-slicing syntax. Usually slicing a
      ``QuerySet`` returns another (unevaluated )``QuerySet``, but Django will
      execute the database query if you use the "step" parameter of slice
      syntax.

    * **repr().** A ``QuerySet`` is evaluated when you call ``repr()`` on it.
      This is for convenience in the Python interactive interpreter, so you can
      immediately see your results when using the API interactively.

    * **len().** A ``QuerySet`` is evaluated when you call ``len()`` on it.
      This, as you might expect, returns the length of the result list.

      Note: *Don't* use ``len()`` on ``QuerySet``\s if all you want to do is
      determine the number of records in the set. It's much more efficient to
      handle a count at the database level, using SQL's ``SELECT COUNT(*)``,
      and Django provides a ``count()`` method for precisely this reason. See
      ``count()`` below.

    * **list().** Force evaluation of a ``QuerySet`` by calling ``list()`` on
      it. For example::

          entry_list = list(Entry.objects.all())

      Be warned, though, that this could have a large memory overhead, because
      Django will load each element of the list into memory. In contrast,
      iterating over a ``QuerySet`` will take advantage of your database to
      load data and instantiate objects only as you need them.

Limiting QuerySets
------------------

Use Python's array-slicing syntax to limit your ``QuerySet`` to a certain
number of results. This is the equivalent of SQL's ``LIMIT`` and ``OFFSET``
clauses.

For example, this returns the first 5 objects (``LIMIT 5``)::

    Entry.objects.all()[:5]

This returns the fifth through tenth objects (``OFFSET 5 LIMIT 5``)::

    Entry.objects.all()[5:10]

Generally, slicing a ``QuerySet`` returns a new ``QuerySet`` -- it doesn't
evaluate the query. An exception is if you use the "step" parameter of Python
slice syntax. For example, this would actually execute the query in order to
return a list of every *second* object of the first 10::

    Entry.objects.all()[:10:2]

To retrieve a *single* object rather than a list
(e.g. ``SELECT foo FROM bar LIMIT 1``), use a simple index instead of a
slice. For example, this returns the first ``Entry`` in the database, after
ordering entries alphabetically by headline::

    Entry.objects.order_by('headline')[0]

This is roughly equivalent to::

    Entry.objects.order_by('headline')[0:1].get()

Note, however, that the first of these will raise ``IndexError`` while the
second will raise ``DoesNotExist`` if no objects match the given criteria.

QuerySet methods that return new QuerySets
------------------------------------------

Django provides a range of ``QuerySet`` refinement methods that modify either
the types of results returned by the ``QuerySet`` or the way its SQL query is
executed.

``filter(**kwargs)``
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Returns a new ``QuerySet`` containing objects that match the given lookup
parameters.

The lookup parameters (``**kwargs``) should be in the format described in
`Field lookups`_ below. Multiple parameters are joined via ``AND`` in the
underlying SQL statement.

``exclude(**kwargs)``
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Returns a new ``QuerySet`` containing objects that do *not* match the given
lookup parameters.

The lookup parameters (``**kwargs``) should be in the format described in
`Field lookups`_ below. Multiple parameters are joined via ``AND`` in the
underlying SQL statement, and the whole thing is enclosed in a ``NOT()``.

This example excludes all entries whose ``pub_date`` is the current date/time
AND whose ``headline`` is "Hello"::

    Entry.objects.exclude(pub_date__gt=datetime.date(2005, 1, 3), headline='Hello')

In SQL terms, that evaluates to::

    SELECT ...
    WHERE NOT (pub_date > '2005-1-3' AND headline = 'Hello')

This example excludes all entries whose ``pub_date`` is the current date/time
OR whose ``headline`` is "Hello"::

    Entry.objects.exclude(pub_date__gt=datetime.date(2005, 1, 3)).exclude(headline='Hello')

In SQL terms, that evaluates to::

    SELECT ...
    WHERE NOT pub_date > '2005-1-3'
    AND NOT headline = 'Hello'

Note the second example is more restrictive.

``order_by(*fields)``
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

By default, results returned by a ``QuerySet`` are ordered by the ordering
tuple given by the ``ordering`` option in the model's ``Meta``. You can
override this on a per-``QuerySet`` basis by using the ``order_by`` method.

Example::

    Entry.objects.filter(pub_date__year=2005).order_by('-pub_date', 'headline')

The result above will be ordered by ``pub_date`` descending, then by
``headline`` ascending. The negative sign in front of ``"-pub_date"`` indicates
*descending* order. Ascending order is implied. To order randomly, use ``"?"``,
like so::

    Entry.objects.order_by('?')

To order by a field in a different table, add the other table's name and a dot,
like so::

    Entry.objects.order_by('blogs_blog.name', 'headline')

There's no way to specify whether ordering should be case sensitive. With
respect to case-sensitivity, Django will order results however your database
backend normally orders them.

``distinct()``
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Returns a new ``QuerySet`` that uses ``SELECT DISTINCT`` in its SQL query. This
eliminates duplicate rows from the query results.

By default, a ``QuerySet`` will not eliminate duplicate rows. In practice, this
is rarely a problem, because simple queries such as ``Blog.objects.all()``
don't introduce the possibility of duplicate result rows.

However, if your query spans multiple tables, it's possible to get duplicate
results when a ``QuerySet`` is evaluated. That's when you'd use ``distinct()``.

``values(*fields)``
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Returns a ``ValuesQuerySet`` -- a ``QuerySet`` that evaluates to a list of
dictionaries instead of model-instance objects.

Each of those dictionaries represents an object, with the keys corresponding to
the attribute names of model objects.

This example compares the dictionaries of ``values()`` with the normal model
objects::

    # This list contains a Blog object.
    >>> Blog.objects.filter(name__startswith='Beatles')
    [Beatles Blog]

    # This list contains a dictionary.
    >>> Blog.objects.filter(name__startswith='Beatles').values()
    [{'id': 1, 'name': 'Beatles Blog', 'tagline': 'All the latest Beatles news.'}]

``values()`` takes optional positional arguments, ``*fields``, which specify
field names to which the ``SELECT`` should be limited. If you specify the
fields, each dictionary will contain only the field keys/values for the fields
you specify. If you don't specify the fields, each dictionary will contain a
key and value for every field in the database table.

Example::

    >>> Blog.objects.values()
    [{'id': 1, 'name': 'Beatles Blog', 'tagline': 'All the latest Beatles news.'}],
    >>> Blog.objects.values('id', 'name')
    [{'id': 1, 'name': 'Beatles Blog'}]

A ``ValuesQuerySet`` is useful when you know you're only going to need values
from a small number of the available fields and you won't need the
functionality of a model instance object. It's more efficient to select only
the fields you need to use.

Finally, note a ``ValuesQuerySet`` is a subclass of ``QuerySet``, so it has all
methods of ``QuerySet``. You can call ``filter()`` on it, or ``order_by()``, or
whatever. Yes, that means these two calls are identical::

    Blog.objects.values().order_by('id')
    Blog.objects.order_by('id').values()

The people who made Django prefer to put all the SQL-affecting methods first,
followed (optionally) by any output-affecting methods (such as ``values()``),
but it doesn't really matter. This is your chance to really flaunt your
individualism.

``dates(field, kind, order='ASC')``
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Returns a ``DateQuerySet`` -- a ``QuerySet`` that evaluates to a list of
``datetime.datetime`` objects representing all available dates of a particular
kind within the contents of the ``QuerySet``.

``field`` should be the name of a ``DateField`` or ``DateTimeField`` of your
model.

``kind`` should be either ``"year"``, ``"month"`` or ``"day"``. Each
``datetime.datetime`` object in the result list is "truncated" to the given
``type``.

    * ``"year"`` returns a list of all distinct year values for the field.
    * ``"month"`` returns a list of all distinct year/month values for the field.
    * ``"day"`` returns a list of all distinct year/month/day values for the field.

``order``, which defaults to ``'ASC'``, should be either ``'ASC'`` or
``'DESC'``. This specifies how to order the results.

Examples::

    >>> Entry.objects.dates('pub_date', 'year')
    [datetime.datetime(2005, 1, 1)]
    >>> Entry.objects.dates('pub_date', 'month')
    [datetime.datetime(2005, 2, 1), datetime.datetime(2005, 3, 1)]
    >>> Entry.objects.dates('pub_date', 'day')
    [datetime.datetime(2005, 2, 20), datetime.datetime(2005, 3, 20)]
    >>> Entry.objects.dates('pub_date', 'day', order='DESC')
    [datetime.datetime(2005, 3, 20), datetime.datetime(2005, 2, 20)]
    >>> Entry.objects.filter(headline__contains='Lennon').dates('pub_date', 'day')
    [datetime.datetime(2005, 3, 20)]

``select_related()``
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Returns a ``QuerySet`` that will automatically "follow" foreign-key
relationships, selecting that additional related-object data when it executes
its query. This is a performance booster which results in (sometimes much)
larger queries but means later use of foreign-key relationships won't require
database queries.

The following examples illustrate the difference between plain lookups and
``select_related()`` lookups. Here's standard lookup::

    # Hits the database.
    e = Entry.objects.get(id=5)

    # Hits the database again to get the related Blog object.
    b = e.blog

And here's ``select_related`` lookup::

    # Hits the database.
    e = Entry.objects.select_related().get(id=5)

    # Doesn't hit the database, because e.blog has been prepopulated
    # in the previous query.
    b = e.blog

``select_related()`` follows foreign keys as far as possible. If you have the
following models::

    class City(models.Model):
        # ...

    class Person(models.Model):
        # ...
        hometown = models.ForeignKey(City)

    class Book(models.Model):
        # ...
        author = models.ForeignKey(Person)

...then a call to ``Book.objects.select_related().get(id=4)`` will cache the
related ``Person`` *and* the related ``City``::

    b = Book.objects.select_related().get(id=4)
    p = b.author         # Doesn't hit the database.
    c = p.hometown       # Doesn't hit the database.

    sv = Book.objects.get(id=4) # No select_related() in this example.
    p = b.author         # Hits the database.
    c = p.hometown       # Hits the database.

Note that ``select_related()`` does not follow foreign keys that have
``null=True``.

``extra(select=None, where=None, params=None, tables=None)``
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Sometimes, the Django query syntax by itself can't easily express a complex
``WHERE`` clause. For these edge cases, Django provides the ``extra()``
``QuerySet`` modifier -- a hook for injecting specific clauses into the SQL
generated by a ``QuerySet``.

By definition, these extra lookups may not be portable to different database
engines (because you're explicitly writing SQL code) and violate the DRY
principle, so you should avoid them if possible.

Specify one or more of ``params``, ``select``, ``where`` or ``tables``. None
of the arguments is required, but you should use at least one of them.

``select``
    The ``select`` argument lets you put extra fields in the ``SELECT`` clause.
    It should be a dictionary mapping attribute names to SQL clauses to use to
    calculate that attribute.

    Example::

        Entry.objects.extra(select={'is_recent': "pub_date > '2006-01-01'"})

    As a result, each ``Entry`` object will have an extra attribute,
    ``is_recent``, a boolean representing whether the entry's ``pub_date`` is
    greater than Jan. 1, 2006.

    Django inserts the given SQL snippet directly into the ``SELECT``
    statement, so the resulting SQL of the above example would be::

        SELECT blog_entry.*, (pub_date > '2006-01-01')
        FROM blog_entry;


    The next example is more advanced; it does a subquery to give each
    resulting ``Blog`` object an ``entry_count`` attribute, an integer count
    of associated ``Entry`` objects::

        Blog.objects.extra(
            select={
                'entry_count': 'SELECT COUNT(*) FROM blog_entry WHERE blog_entry.blog_id = blog_blog.id'
            },
        )

    (In this particular case, we're exploiting the fact that the query will
    already contain the ``blog_blog`` table in its ``FROM`` clause.)

    The resulting SQL of the above example would be::

        SELECT blog_blog.*, (SELECT COUNT(*) FROM blog_entry WHERE blog_entry.blog_id = blog_blog.id)
        FROM blog_blog;

    Note that the parenthesis required by most database engines around
    subqueries are not required in Django's ``select`` clauses. Also note that
    some database backends, such as some MySQL versions, don't support
    subqueries.

``where`` / ``tables``
    You can define explicit SQL ``WHERE`` clauses -- perhaps to perform
    non-explicit joins -- by using ``where``. You can manually add tables to
    the SQL ``FROM`` clause by using ``tables``.

    ``where`` and ``tables`` both take a list of strings. All ``where``
    parameters are "AND"ed to any other search criteria.

    Example::

        Entry.objects.extra(where=['id IN (3, 4, 5, 20)'])

    ...translates (roughly) into the following SQL::

        SELECT * FROM blog_entry WHERE id IN (3, 4, 5, 20);

``params``
    The ``select`` and ``where`` parameters described above may use standard
    Python database string placeholders -- ``'%s'`` to indicate parameters the
    database engine should automatically quote. The ``params`` argument is a
    list of any extra parameters to be substituted.

    Example::

        Entry.objects.extra(where=['headline=%s'], params=['Lennon'])

    Always use ``params`` instead of embedding values directly into ``select``
    or ``where`` because ``params`` will ensure values are quoted correctly
    according to your particular backend. (For example, quotes will be escaped
    correctly.)

    Bad::

        Entry.objects.extra(where=["headline='Lennon'"])

    Good::

        Entry.objects.extra(where=['headline=%s'], params=['Lennon'])

QuerySet methods that do not return QuerySets
---------------------------------------------

The following ``QuerySet`` methods evaluate the ``QuerySet`` and return
something *other than* a ``QuerySet``.

These methods do not use a cache (see _`Caching and QuerySets` below). Rather,
they query the database each time they're called.

``get(**kwargs)``
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Returns the object matching the given lookup parameters, which should be in
the format described in `Field lookups`_.

``get()`` raises ``AssertionError`` if more than one object was found.

``get()`` raises a ``DoesNotExist`` exception if an object wasn't found for the
given parameters. The ``DoesNotExist`` exception is an attribute of the model
class. Example::

    Entry.objects.get(id='foo') # raises Entry.DoesNotExist

The ``DoesNotExist`` exception inherits from
``django.core.exceptions.ObjectDoesNotExist``, so you can target multiple
``DoesNotExist`` exceptions. Example::

    from django.core.exceptions import ObjectDoesNotExist
    try:
        e = Entry.objects.get(id=3)
        b = Blog.objects.get(id=1)
    except ObjectDoesNotExist:
        print "Either the entry or blog doesn't exist."

``create(**kwargs)``
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

A convenience method for creating an object and saving it all in one step.  Thus::

    p = Person.objects.create(first_name="Bruce", last_name="Springsteen")

and::

    p = Person(first_name="Bruce", last_name="Springsteen")
    p.save()

are equivalent.

``get_or_create(**kwargs)``
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

A convenience method for looking up an object with the given kwargs, creating
one if necessary.

Returns a tuple of ``(object, created)``, where ``object`` is the retrieved or
created object and ``created`` is a boolean specifying whether a new object was
created.

This is meant as a shortcut to boilerplatish code and is mostly useful for
data-import scripts. For example::

    try:
        obj = Person.objects.get(first_name='John', last_name='Lennon')
    except Person.DoesNotExist:
        obj = Person(first_name='John', last_name='Lennon', birthday=date(1940, 10, 9))
        obj.save()

This pattern gets quite unwieldy as the number of fields in a model goes up.
The above example can be rewritten using ``get_or_create()`` like so::

    obj, created = Person.objects.get_or_create(first_name='John', last_name='Lennon',
                      defaults={'birthday': date(1940, 10, 9)})

Any keyword arguments passed to ``get_or_create()`` -- *except* an optional one
called ``defaults`` -- will be used in a ``get()`` call. If an object is found,
``get_or_create()`` returns a tuple of that object and ``False``. If an object
is *not* found, ``get_or_create()`` will instantiate and save a new object,
returning a tuple of the new object and ``True``. The new object will be
created according to this algorithm::

    defaults = kwargs.pop('defaults', {})
    params = dict([(k, v) for k, v in kwargs.items() if '__' not in k])
    params.update(defaults)
    obj = self.model(**params)
    obj.save()

In English, that means start with any non-``'defaults'`` keyword argument that
doesn't contain a double underscore (which would indicate a non-exact lookup).
Then add the contents of ``defaults``, overriding any keys if necessary, and
use the result as the keyword arguments to the model class.

If you have a field named ``defaults`` and want to use it as an exact lookup in
``get_or_create()``, just use ``'defaults__exact'``, like so::

    Foo.objects.get_or_create(defaults__exact='bar', defaults={'defaults': 'baz'})

Finally, a word on using ``get_or_create()`` in Django views. As mentioned
earlier, ``get_or_create()`` is mostly useful in scripts that need to parse
data and create new records if existing ones aren't available. But if you need
to use ``get_or_create()`` in a view, please make sure to use it only in
``POST`` requests unless you have a good reason not to. ``GET`` requests
shouldn't have any effect on data; use ``POST`` whenever a request to a page
has a side effect on your data. For more, see `Safe methods`_ in the HTTP spec.

.. _Safe methods: http://www.w3.org/Protocols/rfc2616/rfc2616-sec9.html#sec9.1.1

``count()``
~~~~~~~~~~~

Returns an integer representing the number of objects in the database matching
the ``QuerySet``. ``count()`` never raises exceptions.

Example::

    # Returns the total number of entries in the database.
    Entry.objects.count()

    # Returns the number of entries whose headline contains 'Lennon'
    Entry.objects.filter(headline__contains='Lennon').count()

``count()`` performs a ``SELECT COUNT(*)`` behind the scenes, so you should
always use ``count()`` rather than loading all of the record into Python
objects and calling ``len()`` on the result.

Depending on which database you're using (e.g. PostgreSQL vs. MySQL),
``count()`` may return a long integer instead of a normal Python integer. This
is an underlying implementation quirk that shouldn't pose any real-world
problems.

``in_bulk(id_list)``
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Takes a list of primary-key values and returns a dictionary mapping each
primary-key value to an instance of the object with the given ID.

Example::

    >>> Blog.objects.in_bulk([1])
    {1: Beatles Blog}
    >>> Blog.objects.in_bulk([1, 2])
    {1: Beatles Blog, 2: Cheddar Talk}
    >>> Blog.objects.in_bulk([])
    {}

If you pass ``in_bulk()`` an empty list, you'll get an empty dictionary.

``latest(field_name=None)``
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Returns the latest object in the table, by date, using the ``field_name``
provided as the date field.

This example returns the latest ``Entry`` in the table, according to the
``pub_date`` field::

    Entry.objects.latest('pub_date')

If your model's ``Meta`` specifies ``get_latest_by``, you can leave off the
``field_name`` argument to ``latest()``. Django will use the field specified in
``get_latest_by`` by default.

Like ``get()``, ``latest()`` raises ``DoesNotExist`` if an object doesn't
exist with the given parameters.

Note ``latest()`` exists purely for convenience and readability.

Field lookups
-------------

Field lookups are how you specify the meat of an SQL ``WHERE`` clause. They're
specified as keyword arguments to the ``QuerySet`` methods ``filter()``,
``exclude()`` and ``get()``.

Basic lookups keyword arguments take the form ``field__lookuptype=value``.
(That's a double-underscore). For example::

    Entry.objects.filter(pub_date__lte='2006-01-01')

translates (roughly) into the following SQL::

    SELECT * FROM blog_entry WHERE pub_date <= '2006-01-01';

.. admonition:: How this is possible

   Python has the ability to define functions that accept arbitrary name-value
   arguments whose names and values are evaluated at runtime. For more
   information, see `Keyword Arguments`_ in the official Python tutorial.

   .. _`Keyword Arguments`: http://docs.python.org/tut/node6.html#SECTION006720000000000000000

If you pass an invalid keyword argument, a lookup function will raise
``TypeError``.

The database API supports the following lookup types:

exact
~~~~~

Exact match. If the value provided for comparison is ``None``, it will 
be interpreted as an SQL ``NULL`` (See isnull_ for more details).  

Examples::

    Entry.objects.get(id__exact=14)
    Entry.objects.get(id__exact=None)

SQL equivalents::

    SELECT ... WHERE id = 14;
    SELECT ... WHERE id = NULL;

iexact
~~~~~~

Case-insensitive exact match.

Example::

    Blog.objects.get(name__iexact='beatles blog')

SQL equivalent::

    SELECT ... WHERE name ILIKE 'beatles blog';

Note this will match ``'Beatles Blog'``, ``'beatles blog'``,
``'BeAtLes BLoG'``, etc.

contains
~~~~~~~~

Case-sensitive containment test.

Example::

    Entry.objects.get(headline__contains='Lennon')

SQL equivalent::

    SELECT ... WHERE headline LIKE '%Lennon%';

Note this will match the headline ``'Today Lennon honored'`` but not
``'today lennon honored'``.

SQLite doesn't support case-sensitive ``LIKE`` statements; ``contains`` acts
like ``icontains`` for SQLite.

icontains
~~~~~~~~~

Case-insensitive containment test.

Example::

    Entry.objects.get(headline__icontains='Lennon')

SQL equivalent::

    SELECT ... WHERE headline ILIKE '%Lennon%';

gt
~~

Greater than.

Example::

    Entry.objects.filter(id__gt=4)

SQL equivalent::

    SELECT ... WHERE id > 4;

gte
~~~

Greater than or equal to.

lt
~~

Less than.

lte
~~~

Less than or equal to.

in
~~

In a given list.

Example::

    Entry.objects.filter(id__in=[1, 3, 4])

SQL equivalent::

    SELECT ... WHERE id IN (1, 3, 4);

startswith
~~~~~~~~~~

Case-sensitive starts-with.

Example::

    Entry.objects.filter(headline__startswith='Will')

SQL equivalent::

    SELECT ... WHERE headline LIKE 'Will%';

SQLite doesn't support case-sensitive ``LIKE`` statements; ``startswith`` acts
like ``istartswith`` for SQLite.

istartswith
~~~~~~~~~~~

Case-insensitive starts-with.

Example::

    Entry.objects.filter(headline__istartswith='will')

SQL equivalent::

    SELECT ... WHERE headline ILIKE 'Will%';

endswith
~~~~~~~~

Case-sensitive ends-with.

Example::

    Entry.objects.filter(headline__endswith='cats')

SQL equivalent::

    SELECT ... WHERE headline LIKE '%cats';

SQLite doesn't support case-sensitive ``LIKE`` statements; ``endswith`` acts
like ``iendswith`` for SQLite.

iendswith
~~~~~~~~~

Case-insensitive ends-with.

Example::

    Entry.objects.filter(headline__iendswith='will')

SQL equivalent::

    SELECT ... WHERE headline ILIKE '%will'

range
~~~~~

Range test (inclusive).

Example::

    start_date = datetime.date(2005, 1, 1)
    end_date = datetime.date(2005, 3, 31)
    Entry.objects.filter(pub_date__range=(start_date, end_date))

SQL equivalent::

    SELECT ... WHERE pub_date BETWEEN '2005-01-01' and '2005-03-31';

You can use ``range`` anywhere you can use ``BETWEEN`` in SQL -- for dates,
numbers and even characters.

year
~~~~

For date/datetime fields, exact year match. Takes a four-digit year.

Example::

    Entry.objects.filter(pub_date__year=2005)

SQL equivalent::

    SELECT ... WHERE EXTRACT('year' FROM pub_date) = '2005';

(The exact SQL syntax varies for each database engine.)

month
~~~~~

For date/datetime fields, exact month match. Takes an integer 1 (January)
through 12 (December).

Example::

    Entry.objects.filter(pub_date__month=12)

SQL equivalent::

    SELECT ... WHERE EXTRACT('month' FROM pub_date) = '12';

(The exact SQL syntax varies for each database engine.)

day
~~~

For date/datetime fields, exact day match.

Example::

    Entry.objects.filter(pub_date__day=3)

SQL equivalent::

    SELECT ... WHERE EXTRACT('day' FROM pub_date) = '3';

(The exact SQL syntax varies for each database engine.)

Note this will match any record with a pub_date on the third day of the month,
such as January 3, July 3, etc.

isnull
~~~~~~

Takes either ``True`` or ``False``, which correspond to SQL queries of 
``IS NULL`` and ``IS NOT NULL``, respectively.

Example::

    Entry.objects.filter(pub_date__isnull=True)

SQL equivalent::

    SELECT ... WHERE pub_date IS NULL;

.. admonition:: ``__isnull=True`` vs ``__exact=None``

    There is an important difference between ``__isnull=True`` and 
    ``__exact=None``. ``__exact=None`` will *always* return an empty result
    set, because SQL requires that no value is equal to ``NULL``. 
    ``__isnull`` determines if the field is currently holding the value 
    of ``NULL`` without performing a comparison.

search
~~~~~~

A boolean full-text search, taking advantage of full-text indexing. This is
like ``contains`` but is significantly faster due to full-text indexing.

Note this is only available in MySQL and requires direct manipulation of the
database to add the full-text index.

Default lookups are exact
-------------------------

If you don't provide a lookup type -- that is, if your keyword argument doesn't
contain a double underscore -- the lookup type is assumed to be ``exact``.

For example, the following two statements are equivalent::

    Blog.objects.get(id__exact=14) # Explicit form
    Blog.objects.get(id=14) # __exact is implied

This is for convenience, because ``exact`` lookups are the common case.

The pk lookup shortcut
----------------------

For convenience, Django provides a ``pk`` lookup type, which stands for
"primary_key". 

In the example ``Blog`` model, the primary key is the ``id`` field, so these
three statements are equivalent::

    Blog.objects.get(id__exact=14) # Explicit form
    Blog.objects.get(id=14) # __exact is implied
    Blog.objects.get(pk=14) # pk implies id__exact

The use of ``pk`` isn't limited to ``__exact`` queries -- any query term 
can be combined with ``pk`` to perform a query on the primary key of a model::

    # Get blogs entries  with id 1, 4 and 7
    Blog.objects.filter(pk__in=[1,4,7])
    # Get all blog entries with id > 14
    Blog.objects.filter(pk__gt=14) 
    
``pk`` lookups also work across joins. For example, these three statements are
equivalent::

    Entry.objects.filter(blog__id__exact=3) # Explicit form
    Entry.objects.filter(blog__id=3) # __exact is implied
    Entry.objects.filter(blog__pk=3) # __pk implies __id__exact

Lookups that span relationships
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Django offers a powerful and intuitive way to "follow" relationships in
lookups, taking care of the SQL ``JOIN``\s for you automatically, behind the
scenes. To span a relationship, just use the field name of related fields
across models, separated by double underscores, until you get to the field you
want.

This example retrieves all ``Entry`` objects with a ``Blog`` whose ``name``
is ``'Beatles Blog'``::

    Entry.objects.filter(blog__name__exact='Beatles Blog')

This spanning can be as deep as you'd like.

It works backwards, too. To refer to a "reverse" relationship, just use the
lowercase name of the model.

This example retrieves all ``Blog`` objects which have at least one ``Entry``
whose ``headline`` contains ``'Lennon'``::

    Blog.objects.filter(entry__headline__contains='Lennon')

Escaping parenthesis and underscores in LIKE statements
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

The field lookups that equate to ``LIKE`` SQL statements (``iexact``,
``contains``, ``icontains``, ``startswith``, ``istartswith``, ``endswith``
and ``iendswith``) will automatically escape the two special characters used in
``LIKE`` statements -- the percent sign and the underscore. (In a ``LIKE``
statement, the percent sign signifies a multiple-character wildcard and the
underscore signifies a single-character wildcard.)

This means things should work intuitively, so the abstraction doesn't leak.
For example, to retrieve all the entries that contain a percent sign, just use
the percent sign as any other character::

    Entry.objects.filter(headline__contains='%')

Django takes care of the quoting for you; the re